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Salvia divinorum (popularly known by its genus name Salvia ) is a psychoactive plant which can induce dissociative effects. The species name, Divinorum , was given because of its traditional use in divination and healing—it literally translates to "diviner's sage" or "seer's sage".
Salvia divinorum has a long and continued tradition of religious use as an entheogen by Mazatec shamans, who use it to facilitate visionary states of consciousness during spiritual healing sessions. Its native habitat is within cloud forest in the isolated Sierra Mazateca of Oaxaca, Mexico, growing in shady and moist locations.
Salvia grows to over a meter high, has hollow square stems, large leaves, and occasional white flowers with purple bracts. Botanists have not determined whether Salvia is a cultigen or a hybrid.
Its active psychoactive constituent is a structurally unique diterpenoid called salvinorin A , a potent κ-opioid receptor agonist. Salvia divinorum leaf is chewed, smoked, or taken as a tincture to produce varying experiences (ranging from laughter to intense/profoundly altered states).
The duration of effects is much briefer than those of other psychoactive compounds, typically only minutes in length. The most commonly reported after-effects include improved mood, sensations of insight, calmness, and connection with nature—though it may also rarely cause dysphoria. Salvia divinorum is generally understood to be of low toxicity (high LD 50 ) and low addictive potential; as a κ-opioid agonist. Results from a small study by an assistant professor at the University of Iowa indicate that it may have potential as an analgesic and as a therapeutic tool for treating drug addictions.
Media stories generally raise alarms over Salvia's legal status and are sometimes headlined with comparisons to LSD or other psychoactive substances. Parental concerns are raised by focusing on salvia's usage by younger teens—the emergence of YouTube videos purporting to depict its use being an area of particular concern in this respect. The isolated and controversial suicide of Brett Chidester received much media attention.
Salvia divinorum remains legal in most countries and, within the United States, is legal in the majority of states. However, some have called for its prohibition. While not currently regulated by US federal drug laws, several states have passed laws criminalizing the substance. Some proposed state bills have failed to progress and have not been made into law (with motions having been voted down or otherwise dying in committee stages). There have not been many publicized prosecutions of individuals violating anti-salvia laws in the few countries and states in which it has been made illegal.
Alternate names
Salvia divinorum is referred to by various other names, depending upon locality, including:
- Diviner's Sage ,
- ska María Pastora ,
- Sage of the Seers .
History
Salvia divinorum is native to certain areas of the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, where it is still used by the Mazatec. While it is primarily taken to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination, it is also used remedially at lower dosages. For example, it is prescribed as a diuretic and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as panzón de borrego , or a swollen belly (literally, "lamb belly").
The history of the plant is not well known, and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin. Speculation includes Salvia divinorum being a wild plant native to the area; a cultigen of the Mazatecs; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group. Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen.
Academic discovery
Salvia divinorum was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism. He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials. It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert.
Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated that the plant could be the mythological pipiltzintzintli , the "Noble Prince" of the Aztec codices. Wasson's speculation has been the subject of further debate amongst ethnobotanists, with some scepticism coming from Leander J. Valdés, and counterpoints more supportive of Wasson's theory from Jonathan Ott.
The identity of another mysterious Aztec entheogen, namely that of poyomatli , has also been suggested as being Salvia divinorum . Here too there are other candidate plants, notably Cacahuaxochitl ( Quararibea funebris ), again suggesting that there is no overall consensus.
Recent history
Salvia divinorum has become both increasingly well-known and available in modern culture. The Internet has allowed for the growth of many businesses selling live salvia plants, dried leaves, extracts, and other preparations.
Medical experts, as well as accident and emergency rooms, have not been reporting cases that suggest particular salvia-related health concerns, and police have not been reporting it as a significant issue with regard to public order offences; in any case, Salvia divinorum has attracted negative attention from the media and some lawmakers.
Botany
Salvia divinorum has large green ovate (oftentimes also dentate) leaves, with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) long. The leaves have no hairs on either surface, and little or no petiole. The plant grows to well over 1 metre (3 ft) in height, has hollow square stems, and occasional white flowers with purple bracts.
The flowers, which bloom only rarely, grow in whorls on a 30-centimetre (12 in) inflorescence, with about six flowers to each whorl. The 3 cm (
1
+
1
⁄
4
-inch) white flowers are curved and covered with hairs, held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands.
Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas, based on Epling and Játiva's description. The first plant material they received was dried, so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson, who didn't realize that their "blue flowers, crowned with a white dome" were in fact blue calyces with unopened white corollas.
Habitat
Salvia divinorum is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, growing in the cloud forest at elevations from 1,000 to 6,000 feet (300 to 1,800 m). Its most common habitat is fertile soil along stream banks where small trees and bushes provide an environment of low light and high humidity.
Reproduction
Salvia divinorum produces few viable seeds even when it does flower. For an unknown reason, pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced. There is no active pollen tube inhibition within the style, but some event or process after the pollen tube reaches the ovary is aberrant. The likeliest explanations are inbreeding depression or hybridity. All of the Mazatec populations appear to be clonal. The plant's square stems break easily and tend to trail on the ground, rooting easily at the nodes and internodes.
Taxonomy
Salvia divinorum was first documented in 1939, but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites.
Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species. In 1962, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson, traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals and looking for specimens of the plant. They were unable to locate live plants, however, the Mazatec did provide them some flowering specimens. These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva, who described and named the plant as Salvia divinorum , after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec. By 1985, up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found.
Botanists have been unable to conclusively determine whether Salvia divinorum is a hybrid or a cultigen. The plant's partial sterility is suggestive of a hybrid origin, though no two parent species have been found with an obvious affinity to Salvia divinorum .
One potential parent is Salvia cyanea (a synonym for Salvia concolor ), which Epling and Játiva believed to be closely allied to Salvia divinorum . The other possibility for the plant's partial sterility is that long-term cultivation and selection have produced an inbred cultigen. The origin of Salvia divinorum is still a mystery, one of only three plants in the genus Salvia with unknown origins—the other two are Salvia tingitana and Salvia buchananii .
Strains
The genetics of Salvia divinorum are limited, especially outside of their native range. There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct collections, that collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist
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